Plants in Polluted and Disturbed Environments: Phytoremediation, Emerging Contaminants and Soil–Plant–Microbe Interactions

Agricultural soils receive chemically and physically dissimilar contaminants through wastewater irrigation, organic amendments, atmospheric deposition and agricultural materials. Microplastics and nanoplastics, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), and pharmaceutical residues increasingly coexist in soil–plant systems, yet are commonly assessed within separate disciplinary frameworks. This critical narrative review examines their sources, environmental availability, root interactions, internal transport, toxicity, bioaccumulation and implications for soil ecological function and food-chain exposure. Peer-reviewed field studies, controlled experiments, methodological evaluations and quantitative evidence syntheses published between 2006 and 1 September 2026 were considered through targeted scholarly searching and citation checking. A central distinction emerges between contamination, biologically available exposure, verified internal accumulation, adverse effect and demonstrated ecological risk. Nanoplastic uptake has been shown experimentally, but its field-scale importance remains difficult to establish because of particle-characterisation and tissue-localisation challenges. For PFAS, compound-specific sorption and plant-part distribution govern crop transfer; shorter-chain compounds often move more readily to shoots, although field observations include non-detections and substantial crop-to-crop variability. Pharmaceuticals display pronounced dependence on ionisation, soil organic matter, irrigation practice and in-plant transformation, with metabolites complicating exposure assessment. Microplastic effects on soil structure and microbial processes are plausible and experimentally supported, whereas attribution of field-level production losses to realistic particle exposures remains less secure. Antibiotic residues introduce the additional concern of selection pressure on soil resistance determinants. Evidence for interactions among these contaminant classes is mechanistically plausible but insufficient to support a general claim that microplastics consistently increase chemical bioavailability or toxicity. The review develops an exposure-to-effect framework and identifies priorities for paired field monitoring, validated analytical methods, realistic mixture experiments and crop-specific risk assessment. A precautionary but proportionate management approach should protect the benefits of water and nutrient reuse while reducing avoidable contaminant inputs and addressing uncertainties in chronic ecological exposure.