Current Research on Geography, Earth Science and Environment Vol. 6

The Toxic Chemicals Consumed in Clay Soil and Its Implications for Women’s Health: A Call to Awareness

Mohora Feida Malebatja — Mon, 23 Feb 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Background: The practise of geophagy is associated with maternal, neonatal and childhood morbidities and mortalities. Pregnancy complications, central nervous system, iron deficiency, shortness of breath, severe constipation, fatigue, appendicitis and cancer were reported as the major public health concerns linked with the practice of geophagy.

Aims: The purpose of this chapter is to provide insights into geophagy and to promote awareness of its causes, practices, and implications.

Methodology: An exploratory mixed-method sequential design was employed to develop an environmental health and promotion intervention program to mitigate geophagy amongst women of childbearing age in Tshwane District, Gauteng Province. The study was conducted in the Tshwane District, Gauteng Province, South Africa. The study was run between September 2023 and October 2024. Experimental research was conducted at the Biochemistry laboratory at the University of Johannesburg using the ICP Mass Spectrometry to examine the chemical composition of clay soil eaten by geophagic women of childbearing age in the Tshwane District, Gauteng Province. Face-to-face in-depth interviews and focus group discussions were conducted with women of childbearing age and Nurses in the antenatal care and family planning units. A purposive sampling technique was followed to select and include study participants. The sample size reached was 99 women of childbearing age, including pregnant women and 20 Nurses, determined by the data saturation, which is the point at which participants are no longer providing new information.

Results: More than 50% of pregnant women practised geophagy during their gestation period to supplement their nutrient, vitamins and minerals deficiencies. Nurses perceived that people who practise geophagy are iron-deficient. Thirty-nine samples were assessed to detect the chemical composition and potential health risks associated with the practise of geophagy. 18 Trace elements were detected from the samples containing both essential and non-essential elements. The potential health risks reported to be linked with the practice of geophagy included cancer, appendicitis, severe constipation, dental enamel damage, iron deficiency, iron deficiency anaemia, fatigue, shortness of breath, lead poisoning, pregnancy complications, central nervous system damage, and birth defects.

Conclusion: It is thus concluded that practise of geophagy is harmful, containing toxic elements such as trace elements. The practise of geophagy and commercialisation of geophagic must be discouraged to curb health-related risks associated with the practise of geophagy. More research is needed to understand geophagy better. We need to educate people about the risks of geophagy and help those who are affected. Governments should make rules to stop the sale of clay soil for eating. We should spread awareness about the dangers of geophagy through campaigns and community programs.

Seasonal Variability of Surface Currents in the Kawal Estuary, Bintan Island, Indonesia: A Hydrodynamic Modelling Approach

Mon, 23 Feb 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Background: From a social point of view, the water area around the mouth of the Kawal river, Bintan regency, is a tourism area, settlement, fisherman harbour, and seagrass conservation area that affects the sustainability of coastal activities and conditions such as abrasion, sedimentation and changes in coastline. Current patterns and wind speeds around the region are strongly influenced by winds blowing from the dominant monsoon system in Southeast Asian waters.

Aims: This study analyses the seasonal hydrodynamic characteristics, particularly surface current patterns, in the Kawal Estuary, eastern Bintan Island, Indonesia, a monsoon-dominated area intensively utilised for tourism, settlements, seagrass conservation, and fisheries activities.

Study Design: A numerical hydrodynamic modelling approach was employed to simulate and evaluate seasonal variations in the magnitude and direction of surface currents over a one-year period.

Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted in the Kawal estuary, Bintan Island, Indonesia, covering a one-year simulation period from December 2020 to November 2021.

Methodology: Hydrodynamic simulations were performed using the MIKE 21/3 Flexible Mesh integrated flow model. Seasonal surface current characteristics were examined across representative tidal conditions, including flood and ebb phases under spring and neap tides. Model validation was conducted using tidal data and in situ current measurements obtained from a Recording Current Meter deployed in March 2021. Surface current magnitude and direction were analysed at four representative locations within and around the estuary.

Results: The modelling results show good agreement with observations, achieving validation accuracies of 81.69% for tidal data and 85.04% for field current measurements. Surface current patterns exhibit pronounced spatial and seasonal variability, with predominantly northeastward flow at the northern and southern locations, while the frontal area displays greater directional variability. Two dominant flow patterns were identified, characterised by southwest–south and northeastward directions associated with tidal reversals. Peak surface current velocities consistently occur during the flood tide phase.

Conclusion: The Kawal Estuary exhibits complex seasonal surface current dynamics controlled by monsoon forcing, tidal variability, and estuarine geometry. These findings provide essential baseline information for understanding sediment transport pathways, supporting coastal management and navigation planning, and enhancing the sustainability of estuarine ecosystems in monsoon-influenced tropical regions.

A Study of the Seawater Quality Around Halmahera Islands, North Maluku, Indonesia

Mon, 23 Feb 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Halmahera is one of the largest islands in North Maluku, Indonesia. The island is rich in valuable minerals like gold and nickel, and it also has abundant marine resources. In September 2005 (transition monsoon), a research survey was carried out in the waters around Halmahera, because September is a transitional season, where in this month there is a change of season from the east season to the west season, which affects water conditions. This study aims to monitor seawater quality in relation to fisheries and tourism interests. The study looked at both physical and chemical seawater quality parameters. The physical parameters measured included temperature, salinity, turbidity, total suspended solids (TSS), and light transmission, while the chemical parameters were nutrients (phosphate, nitrate, silicate), dissolved oxygen (DO), acidity (pH), and heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn, and Ni). The results showed that the seawater quality was generally suitable for fisheries and tourism activities and still met the standards set for Indonesia’s seawater quality.

Multitemporal Monitoring of Surface Water Dynamics in Lake Tota (Colombia) Using Landsat Imagery and NDWI: A Replicable Methodological Framework

Alexander Saavedra Pulido, Carlos Caro Camargo — Mon, 23 Feb 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Remote sensing has become an essential tool for understanding environmental dynamics, particularly the long-term monitoring of surface water bodies. Among spectral indices, the Normalised Difference Water Index (NDWI) has shown strong potential for detecting and quantifying changes in water surfaces using multispectral satellite imagery. This chapter presents a replicable methodological framework for the multitemporal analysis of surface water dynamics based on Landsat imagery and the NDWI index, integrating conceptual explanation with a step-by-step workflow accessible to researchers, professionals, and students.

The proposed methodology is applied to Lake Tota, the largest natural freshwater lake in Colombia, using Landsat images from 1985 to 2025. The results indicate a net reduction of 125.24 hectares in surface water area, equivalent to a decrease of 2.29% relative to the baseline year, together with marked interannual variability and a declining trend in recent years. Beyond the case study, the framework offers a transferable approach for monitoring surface water changes in different geographic contexts, contributing to more informed decision-making in environmental management and research.

GIS-Based Flood Susceptibility Mapping of Ernakulam District, Kerala, India Using the Frequency Ratio Model

V. V. Neethu — Mon, 23 Feb 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Flooding remains one of the most recurrent and damaging natural hazards affecting the low-lying coastal districts of Kerala, with Ernakulam District experiencing repeated flood events during the southwest monsoon. Flood susceptibility is an important mission for early warning systems and emergency services for the prevention and mitigation of future floods. This study assesses flood susceptibility in Ernakulam District, Kerala, India, using the Frequency Ratio (FR) model integrated with Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques. A flood inventory was developed using historical flood records and satellite-derived data, and six flood-conditioning factors—geology, land use/land cover (LU/LC), soil, drainage density, rainfall, and slope—were selected based on their hydrological relevance. Each factor was classified and evaluated using the Frequency Ratio approach to quantify its contribution to flood occurrence. Satellite data, including Landsat imagery and ASTER DEM, were used to generate thematic maps such as land use/land cover, relief, slope, drainage density, rainfall, soil, and geology.

The results reveal that built-up areas exhibit the highest flood susceptibility (FR = 4.65), reflecting the combined influence of rapid urban expansion, impervious surfaces, and inadequate drainage systems. In contrast, forested areas demonstrate minimal flood susceptibility (FR = 0.17), highlighting their role in runoff regulation and hydrological stability. Among the conditioning factors, geology (FR = 7.73) emerged as the most influential parameter, followed by land use/land cover (FR = 6.90) and soil characteristics (FR = 6.58), while slope (FR = 1.60) showed comparatively lower control over flood occurrence. The highest flood susceptibility was associated with the 7–9 rainfall class (FR = 2.93), indicating that areas experiencing intense rainfall are more prone to flooding despite their smaller spatial coverage. The final flood susceptibility map categorises the district into low, moderate, high, and very high susceptibility zones.

The findings confirm that the Frequency Ratio model is an effective and reliable tool for flood susceptibility assessment in data-scarce regions. The generated susceptibility map provides valuable insights for disaster risk reduction, land-use planning, and sustainable flood management, thereby supporting climate-resilient development strategies in Ernakulam District. In future, studies should integrate high-resolution temporal data and climate change projections to enhance the accuracy and reliability of flood susceptibility assessments.

An Integrated System Dynamics Framework for Sustainability Assessment in Andean Mountain Regions: A Case Study of Quindío, Colombia

Javier Burgos-Salcedo, Carolina Sierra — Mon, 23 Feb 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Andean mountain regions face accelerating pressures from deforestation, ecological degradation, and climate change, yet policymakers often lack integrated tools to evaluate long‑term, cross-sector sustainability strategies. This study develops and validates a system dynamics model that integrates environmental, economic, social, and institutional subsystems to assess the effectiveness of policy interventions in the Quindío Department of Colombia over 2025–2055. The framework provides a practical decision-support tool for governments by identifying high-impact leverage points, particularly reforestation policies and institutional strengthening and quantifying their effects on forest conservation, poverty reduction, carbon capture, and economic growth. Results show that Sustainable Transformation policies deliver a 6.8:1 return on investment, substantially increase forest cover and ecosystem integrity, and reduce poverty by 44.4 percentage points, demonstrating that coordinated sustainability packages generate synergistic rather than trade-off outcomes. The model’s rigorous validation, sensitivity analysis, and scenario-based outputs equip regional authorities with actionable evidence for prioritising investments, sequencing interventions, and implementing adaptive management under uncertainty. Because the framework is modular, data-driven, and grounded in global standards (IPCC, SEEA-EA, MEA), it can be readily adapted and transferred to other mountainous socio-ecological systems worldwide to support sustainability policy design.

Climate Change Impact Assessment and Mitigation Options in the Energy Sector of African Countries

Godsday Idanegbe Usiabulu, Eddy Ifeanyi Okoh, Lucia Ndidi Okoh — Mon, 23 Feb 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Access to reliable, affordable, and sustainable energy is vital for achieving several SDGs, influencing health, climate, land use, and economic development. Modern energy services drive agricultural transformation, support productive enterprises, and foster revenue-generating activities. However, energy consumption leads to emissions of pollutants like CO, hydrocarbons, SOx, NOx, methane, and particulates, impacting climate and health. Many of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) require access to dependable, affordable, and sustainable energy, as it has a substantial impact on health, climate, land use, and other sectors. Modern energy services are also required for agricultural transformation, the creation of productive firms, and the support of revenue-generating activities. As a result of energy consumption, combustion, and greenhouse impacts from emissions of environmental pollutants such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon compounds, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, methane, and particulates are examined. Among the many pollutants that contribute to climate change, CO2 emissions have received a lot of attention as the primary cause of climate change. Special attention should be given to investments and policies that promote all three goals or, at the very least, those that improve one or both without worsening the other. This report provides a (non-exhaustive) synthesis and assessment of energy consumption rates, supply, and access challenges in Africa, focusing on the connections, synergies, and conflicts with climate mitigation and adaptation strategies. The energy supply rate of about 20 African nations has been reported in this review, including petrol, diesel, LPG, coal, and kerosene for the economic years between 2009 and 2019. As income levels rise, energy utilisation patterns shift, and access to cleaner energy sources like electricity improves, enhancing overall well-being. However, Africa's energy mix needs recalibration to balance supply, access, and climate goals.

Observation of Air Quality in Iraq during March, 2026

Saad M. Potrous — Mon, 23 Feb 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Climate change in Iraq is exacerbating environmental, security, political, and economic challenges, with rising temperatures, prolonged drought, declining rainfall, desertification, salinisation, and increased dust storms significantly undermining the agricultural sector. This study investigates air quality in Iraq during March 2026 by analysing major air pollutants, including Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂), Ground-level Ozone (O₃), Particulate Matter (PM₁₀ and PM₂.₅), Carbon Monoxide (CO), and Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂). The study focuses on three Iraqi governorates: Duhok (north), Baghdad (central), and Basra (south), to compare spatial variations in air quality index (AQI) values.

Daily air quality data were recorded from March 1 to March 31, 2026. The collected data were analysed and presented graphically to compare pollutant levels among the three regions. Air quality levels were classified according to the AQI scale: Good (0–50), Moderate (51–100), Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups (101–150), Unhealthy (151–200), Very Unhealthy (201–300), and Hazardous (>300).

The results indicate that pollution levels varied across regions and pollutants. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂) reached a moderate level in Baghdad on March 19, while Ground-level Ozone (O₃) reached a moderate level in Duhok on March 2. Particulate matter showed the highest pollution levels in Basra, where PM₁₀ reached an unhealthy level on March 10, and PM₂.₅ reached a very unhealthy level on March 22. In contrast, Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂) levels in Baghdad remained within the good category. Overall, this study highlights the critical need for strengthened environmental policies and sustained monitoring efforts to reduce air pollution and safeguard public health in Iraq.