Chemistry and Biochemistry: Research Progress Vol. 11

Recent Advances and Case Studies in LC–MS and LC–MS/MS Applications in Pharmaceutical, Food and Biological Sciences

2026-07-17T08:43:07+00:00

Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) and LC–MS/MS are powerful analytical techniques widely used to analyse pharmaceutical, biological, food, and environmental samples. These techniques combine the separation capability of liquid chromatography with the identification and detection efficiency of mass spectrometry, providing high sensitivity, selectivity, and accurate compound characterisation. This chapter presents the principles, instrumentation, sample preparation methods, applications, and recent advancements of LC–MS and LC–MS/MS. Important analytical components, including ionisation methods, mass analysers, chromatographic systems, and data processing approaches, are discussed.

The chapter also highlights detailed case studies related to pharmaceutical analysis, metabolomics, and nutraceutical research. The Ivosidenib degradation study demonstrates the importance of LC–MS/MS in stability-indicating analysis and impurity profiling, whereas the rheumatoid arthritis metabolomics study explains biomarker discovery and metabolic pathway analysis. In addition, the almond bioactive peptide study describes peptide identification and nutraceutical applications using LC–MS/MS. Method validation, quality assurance, software applications, advantages, limitations, and recent developments, such as artificial intelligence and high-resolution mass spectrometry, are also included. Overall, LC–MS has become an important analytical platform in drug development, clinical diagnostics, food safety, and personalised medicine.

Comparative Phytochemical Analysis of Leaf and Bark Extracts of Trema orientalis (Linn. Blume): Implications for Medicinal Applications

2026-07-17T09:08:11+00:00

Background: Trema orientalis has been used extensively in traditional medicine for the treatment of respiratory, inflammatory and helminthic diseases. The fruit, leaves, bark, stem, twigs and seeds are also widely used in traditional medicine.

Aim: The primary aim of the study was to identify and compare the phytochemicals present in the methanol and n-hexane extracts of the leaf and bark of T. orientalis.

Method: The leaf and bark of T. orientalis were harvested from the Federal University of Technology, Akure, forest, dried and pulverised into powder. Extracts were prepared from the powdered plant materials using methanol and n-hexane. The qualitative and quantitative phytochemicals present in the extracts were determined. The functional compounds of the leaf extracts were determined using Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry (FT-IR).

Results: The recovered extracts and percentage yields were 8 g (1.6%) and 6 g (1.2%) for the leaf samples, and 50 g (10%) and 1 g (0.2%) for the bark samples, for methanol and n-hexane, respectively. Overall, the methanolic extracts showed higher yields than those obtained with n-hexane for both plant parts. The phytochemicals detected included tannins, saponins, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids and cardiac glycosides. Steroids were present in the leaf extracts but absent in the bark extracts, while saponin was present only in the methanol extract of the bark. Quantitative analysis revealed that terpenoids had the highest amounts, with 22.22 ± 0.09 mg/g in the leaf methanol extract, 23.38 ± 0.04 mg/g in the leaf n-hexane extract, 22.90 ± 0.03 mg/g in the bark methanol extract and 28.09 ± 0.07 mg/g in the bark n-hexane extract. Higher quantities of phytochemicals were present in the leaf compared with the bark of T. orientalis. Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry (FT-IR) analysis revealed the organic compounds present in the extracts, including aliphatic primary alcohol, secondary alcohol, aliphatic primary amine, alkane, alkene, carbon dioxide, δ-lactam, phenol and halo compound.

Conclusion: The study confirmed the presence of essential phytochemicals, including tannins, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids and terpenoids, in all the extracts. These findings indicate that T. orientalis may be a relevant medicinal plant for further therapeutic research.

Phytochemicals Profile, Cytotoxicity and Proximate Analysis of Three Medicinal Plants in Kashere, Gombe State, Nigeria

2026-07-17T09:12:17+00:00

The plant kingdom is a source of potential drugs, and awareness of the importance of medicinal plants has increased in recent years. Plant-derived drugs are readily available, less expensive, safe and efficient, and they rarely have side effects. This study investigated the phytoconstituents, cytotoxicity and proximate composition of selected plant extracts to determine their medicinal potential and nutritive value. Extracts of Sassafras albidum (Lauraceae), Detarium microcarpum (Caesalpinioideae) and Echinacea angustifolia DC (Compositae) were screened for secondary metabolites and assessed using the brine shrimp toxicity assay (BST). The stem barks of the three plants were collected in Kashere, Akko Local Government Area, Gombe State, Nigeria. Dried powdered samples of the same plants were analysed for their proximate composition. The results showed the presence of important secondary metabolites, including alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, saponins, phlobatannins, anthraquinones, resins, terpenoids and glycosides. Cytotoxicity screening showed that E. angustifolia was most toxic to the nauplii. The proximate composition of Sassafras albidum revealed 62.5% moisture, 71.0% ash, 67.0% fibre, 13.33% fat and 0.79% protein. Detarium microcarpum contained 2.0% moisture, 3.5% ash, 0.83% protein, 6.67% fat and 79% carbohydrate, while Echinacea angustifolia DC contained 32.5% moisture, 93.0% ash, 10.0% fibre, 3.33% fat and 3.33% protein. The cytotoxicity assay revealed LC50 values of 63.1µg/ml, 158.49 µg/ml and 316.23 µg/ml for Sassafras albidum, Detarium microcarpum and Echinacea angustifolia DC, respectively. The study concluded that the investigated plants possess medicinal potential and nutritive value. Hence, Traditional Medicine Practitioners (TMP) have reasons for using these plants as remedies for ailments and as food.

Surface Chemistry: Colloidal Systems, Adsorption Isotherms, and Heterogeneous Catalysis

2026-07-24T04:03:40+00:00

Surface chemistry examines physicochemical phenomena at interfaces between solid, liquid, and gaseous phases. This chapter provides an integrated account of colloidal systems, adsorption isotherms, and heterogeneous catalysis. It distinguishes true solutions, colloidal dispersions, and suspensions according to particle size and describes the dispersed phase and dispersion medium. The discussion covers the classification, preparation, purification, and principal properties of colloids, including Brownian movement, the Tyndall effect, electrophoresis, electroosmosis, electrical double layers, zeta potential, coagulation, peptisation, protective colloids, and the gold number. Factors affecting colloidal stability are considered alongside the formation and behaviour of micelles, emulsions, emulsifying agents, and surfactants. Adsorption is presented in terms of physisorption, chemisorption, desorption, and the effects of temperature, pressure, adsorbate properties, and adsorbent surface area. The Freundlich, Langmuir, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller, and Gibbs adsorption isotherms are outlined, together with their principal equations and applications to gas- and solution-phase adsorption. The chapter further explains heterogeneous catalysis through adsorption and the Langmuir–Hinshelwood mechanism, including the sequential stages of diffusion, adsorption, surface reaction, desorption, and product diffusion. Quantitative treatments of unimolecular and bimolecular surface reactions are included to relate surface coverage and reactant pressure to reaction rate. Collectively, these topics establish the fundamental relationships between interfacial structure, colloidal behaviour, adsorption, and catalytic processes.

Green Approaches to the Synthesis of Benzothiazoles: A Comprehensive Review

2026-07-29T10:10:04+00:00

The benzothiazole (BTZ) core is one of the important nitrogen- and sulphur-containing fused heterocyclic scaffolds. The study of heterocyclic compounds is important because they exhibit notable bioactivity and pharmacological activity. Consequently, medicinal chemists have shown increasing interest in developing synthetic routes and investigating the biological properties of heterocyclic compounds. In this context, the synthesis and discovery of the biological properties of unique BTZ derivatives have increased markedly in recent years. However, many classical techniques used for benzothiazole synthesis have drawbacks and lack long-term sustainability. This limitation has created an urgent need for eco-friendly synthetic strategies. To accelerate the discovery of future BTZ-based lead molecules, it is essential to understand green chemical pathways. This review consolidates recent advances in the green synthesis of benzothiazole and its derivatives. By focusing on literature published over the last decade (2014-2024), this study highlights modern, sustainable approaches that support both medicinal relevance and environmental responsibility.

Magnesium-Based Bioinorganic Nanomaterials Synthesized with Monodora myristica Extract Ameliorate Dyslipidemia, Cardiovascular Risk and β-Cell Dysfunction in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Rats

2026-07-31T10:44:28+00:00

Nanomedicine has recently played a crucial role in addressing numerous human ailments and complications. Monodora myristica, also known as African nutmeg, is a rich source of bioactive phytonutrients that can act as reducing agents in the synthesis of metal-based nanoparticles. This study aimed to assess the effects of biogenic magnesium hydroxide nanoparticles from Monodora myristica (Mg(OH)₂NP-Mm) on antioxidant parameters, lipid dysfunction-related indices, and the mRNA expression of Akt, Nrf2, and insulin genes in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Mg(OH)₂NP-Mm was biosynthesised and characterised using EDX, FTIR, SEM, and UV analyses. To induce diabetes, 48 adult male Wistar rats (150–250 g) were randomly assigned to eight groups of six and administered streptozotocin (55 mg/kg bw). Diabetic animals were treated with 50, 100, 150, or 200 mg/kg bw Mg(OH)₂NP-Mm for 21 days, with Mg(OH)₂NP-STD (150 mg/kg bw) and glibenclamide (5 mg/kg bw) serving as control treatments. Biochemical analyses included antioxidant enzyme activities, lipid peroxidation, serum lipid profiles, and atherogenic indices. Molecular analyses involved RNA extraction, cDNA synthesis, PCR, and agarose gel electrophoresis. Data were analysed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test, and the results were presented graphically using GraphPad Prism 8.5 (GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA). Characterisation of Mg(OH)₂NP-Mm revealed a light-scattering capacity of 220–235 nm, particle sizes of 5–100 nm, morphology, probable functional groups, and elemental composition. The results indicated improvements in pancreatic antioxidant status and lipid profiles, with significant (p < 0.05) reductions in atherogenic and coronary risk indices. Mg(OH)₂NP-Mm treatment also upregulated the mRNA expression of Nrf2, Akt, and insulin genes. These findings suggest that the effects of Mg(OH)₂NP-Mm may be associated with its capacity to promote Akt/Nrf2/ARE antioxidant signalling and improve insulin secretion, both of which are relevant to the management of diabetes mellitus and related complications.

Biosynthesis of Polyphenols with Antioxidant Potential: A Review

2026-08-05T09:27:24+00:00

Polyphenols are diverse plant secondary metabolites characterised by phenolic structural units and widely recognised for their antioxidant potential. This chapter reviews the major classes of polyphenols, their biosynthetic origins, biological properties, production approaches, extraction methods, and selected industrial applications. The discussion covers phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbenes, lignans, tannins, and related compounds, with emphasis on their occurrence in fruits, vegetables, seeds, cereals, nuts, tea, coffee, wine, and other plant-derived materials. It also summarises the shikimate and phenylpropanoid pathways, which contribute to the formation of flavonoids, lignin-related compounds, and other phenolic metabolites. The antioxidant mechanisms described include free-radical scavenging, modulation of oxidative stress, metal-ion interaction, and support of cellular protective systems. Health-related sections outline reported anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, cardioprotective, antidiabetic, neuroprotective, and anticancer activities, while recognising the need for further validation of mechanisms and effects. The chapter also reviews plant tissue culture, genetic engineering, enzymatic extraction, and fermentation as approaches for controlled production, scalability, and improved recovery of polyphenols. In addition, it outlines applications in food preservation, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, textiles, paper, and chromatographic identification. Overall, polyphenols are presented as scientifically relevant natural compounds with broad biological and industrial interest, although their practical use depends on validated health claims, production efficiency, product quality, analytical reliability, safety, and reproducibility.