Agricultural Sciences: Techniques and Innovations Vol. 3

Professionalising Agricultural Extension in Limpopo, South Africa: Challenges, Progress and Key Competencies

E. M. Zwane — 2025-07-08

The journey towards professionalism in South Africa was championed by not a single person but a collective, each one doing a part in the process. The South African Society for Agricultural Extension made some efforts by participating in the Standard Generating Body, and it further developed an extension landscape which categorised its members towards professionalism. The paper argues that professionalism also affects agricultural extension in service delivery by creating demotivated cadres in agriculture. It also provides clarification of the concept of professionalism. It draws data from researchers who did extensive work in the area of professionalism and the registration of profession, the paper seeks to achieve the following: 1) provide concrete principles of professionalism, 2) identify critical obstacles associated with professionalism, 3) review progress on efforts done to date in South Africa about professionalism in extension, 4) and highlight the qualities extensionists are expected to possess. Only three districts in Limpopo, namely Capricorn, Vhembe and Sekhukhune, participated in a sample of 30 extension officers. They were interviewed on their opinions about the skills requirements of the extension profession. The majority of the respondents were male, constituting 70 per cent and 30 per cent female.

The results revealed that certain skills are important to be possessed by the extension practitioners as seen by their rating: public speaking 86%, writing 72%, listening 69%, research linkages 83%, leadership,76.6%, critical thinking 63%, supervisory 70% and communication planning 83.3%. But when respondents were asked to judge themselves on the functionality of those skills, it was found wanting. The study concluded that professionalising extension and advisory practitioners in South Africa should be considered highly by all stakeholders interested in agricultural development. The study recommended that an action plan needs to be developed in order to bring or maintain a variety of competences among the extension practitioners, who should strive for excellence in order to improve service delivery.

Investigation of the Sound Absorption Performance of Cellulosic Fine Fibres Fabricated from Agricultural Waste Fibres

Alhayat G. TEMESGEN — 2025-07-08

Noise pollution today has caused several detrimental effects on the population, affecting both the health and behaviour of individuals. The advancement of controlling noise by sound absorption offers an excellent opportunity to study the acoustic attenuation technique of various natural porous materials. Hence, there is a growing interest in developing new materials that enhance the optimal utilisation of natural resources, particularly renewable resources. This paper presents a new study on agro-waste-based fine fibre for acoustic application prepared by enzymatic treatment and mechanical hammering. The main objective of this study was to determine the sound absorption characteristics of the acoustic material of fine cellulose fibres. Enset fine fibre (ENF), Banana fine fibre (BNF), Jute fine fibre (JNF), and Sisal fine fibre (SNF) were fabricated by defibrillation of finer fibres from the surface of neat mats (fabrics) into micro and fine-scale fibres with the help of enzymatic treatment (alpha-amylase) and then mechanical hammering. The study was conducted using the impedance tube method, and the sound absorption properties of lignocellulosic micro and fine fibres in a frequency range of 500 to 5500 Hz were studied by changing the thickness. The experimental results revealed that the sound absorption coefficient of ENF started near 0.01 at 1000 Hz and tended to increase at a slower rate up to 2700 Hz. It reached around 0.3 at 3000 Hz and 0.69 at 3800 Hz. Similarly, the sound absorption coefficient of BNF started near 0.05 at 1000 Hz and tended to increase rapidly up to around 2250 Hz. It reached around 0.54 at 2300 Hz up to 4000 Hz. Nevertheless, the sound absorption coefficient of ENF and SNF increased slowly with increasing frequency. The SEM image showed that ENF, JNF, and SNF had more of a porous space and void region than BNF. Due to this, BNF had a lower sound transmission loss value than other fine-fibrous materials. The experimental results also revealed that excessive water would increase the porosity of homemade fine fibres, therefore lowering their airflow resistivity of fine fibrous, thereby decreasing sound absorption and dramatically increasing sound transmission loss.

Evaluating the Effects of Different Acidic Conditions on the Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) Activity of Phosphate-Solubilising Bacteria

Betty Natalie Fitriatin — 2025-07-08

One of the primary challenges in Indonesian marginal soil is the limited availability of macronutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphate (P). Soil P plays an important role in plant growth and soil fertility. The acidity of the soil influences the amount of phosphorus available in the soil; acidic soils have low phosphorus availability. The phosphorus fixation reaction is pH-dependent. The use of phosphorus-solubilising bacteria improves phosphorus availability in acidic soils. The production of dissolved phosphorus and organic acids is one of the functions of the plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) activity of phosphorus-solubilising bacteria. The purpose of this study was to examine how acidity affects the organic acid production and dissolved phosphorus levels of phosphate-solubilising bacteria (PSB). Experiments were carried out in the Laboratory of Soil Biology, Department of Soil and Land Resources, Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Padjadjaran. Two isolates of PGPR (Burkholderia sp. strain WK 11 and Burkholderia sp. strain MQ-14W) were used in this study, both of which were isolated from an acidic soil ecosystem. The pH 4.5, normal pH (7) and 10.5 were the levels of acidity. The result showed that the pH of the media had a significant effect on dissolved P in the media after being incubated for 7 days. The results revealed that the acidity of the water had an effect on the amount of dissolved phosphorus and the amount of organic acid produced by the phosphate-solubilising bacteria. PSB produced more organic acid (lactic, citric, oxalic, and tartaric acid) and dissolved phosphorus at pH 4.5 than at pH 7 or pH 10.5. The mechanism of phosphate solubilization by bacteria is related to their ability to produce organic acids. Each bacterium has a genetically different ability to produce organic acids, both in the amount and organic matter. The amount and organic matter are important in determining the high dissolution of P.

Tamarind Post-Harvest Management and Loss Assessment in Semi-Arid Regions

P. Deepthi — 2025-07-08

Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) is a vital crop in semi-arid regions of India, contributing significantly to local economies and nutrition. However, substantial post-harvest losses (PHL) across the tamarind supply chain—particularly due to inefficient handling, inadequate storage, and poor transportation—pose serious threats to food security and farmer income. This study aims to quantify PHL in tamarind at farm, wholesale, and retail levels in Anantapur district, Andhra Pradesh, and identify key loss points and causes. Using a structured sampling approach, data were collected from 5 farmers, 5 wholesalers, and 5 retailers across selected villages and market yards. Results showed that farm-level losses were the highest, amounting to 1,897.6 kg or 27.9% of production, primarily due to manual harvesting using bamboo poles, improper sorting, and inadequate curing and packaging. While specific loss quantities at the wholesale and retail stages were not numerically documented, field observations indicated significant deterioration due to high moisture, microbial spoilage, poor ventilation, and lack of climate-controlled storage. Contributing factors included the use of gunny bags, delayed transit, and exposure to fluctuating humidity at retail stalls. The study concludes with actionable recommendations such as adopting mechanical harvest tools, introducing improved packaging, and strengthening post-harvest infrastructure. Reducing these losses is essential for improving food availability, enhancing supply chain sustainability, and boosting the livelihoods of tamarind producers and traders.

Assessing Economic Resilience of Farm Households in Kerala’s Coastal Plains under Climate Stress

Pooja Krishna J — 2025-07-08

Kerala’s distinctive geography and climatic conditions make it especially vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including rising temperatures, shifting rainfall patterns, and an increase in extreme weather events. To navigate these challenges, building resilience—particularly in agriculture—is vital for protecting rural livelihoods and promoting sustainable development. In this context, a study was conducted to assess the economic resilience of farming households across six agro-ecological units (AEUs) within Kerala’s coastal plains. The assessment centred on developing an Economic Resilience Index (ERI), which was based on three key dimensions: absorptive, adaptive, and transformative capacities. Thirteen carefully selected indicators were used to evaluate these dimensions, with data collected through focus group discussions, personal interviews, expert consultations, and key informant interviews. The findings revealed notable differences in economic resilience across the AEUs. Of the six units studied, Kuttanad had the lowest ERI score of 0.521—below the average of 0.573—while AEU 7 (Kaipad) recorded the highest score of 0.677. Though there were no statistically significant differences across the three capacities, the variation in overall resilience pointed to differing regional strengths and vulnerabilities. Absorptive capacity was shaped by crop losses, access to financial resources, and government support. Adaptive capacity was linked to subsidy access and livelihood diversification, while transformative capacity depended on factors like minimum support prices and value addition. Enhancing resilience in agriculture requires collaboration between farmers and scientists, backed by strong policies. Targeted government interventions, community involvement, and investment in infrastructure and innovation are essential for preparing Kerala’s agriculture to face climate-related challenges.

Allometric Regression Models for Parkia biglobosa in the Guinea Savanna of Ghana

Cosmas S. Abengmeneng — 2025-07-08

Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R. Br. ex G. Don f., belongs to the family Leguminosae, is a multipurpose tree and plays several important roles in the lives of the people of Northern Ghana. The rising demand for Parkia biglobosa due to its numerous benefits and the lack of active conservation measures has endangered the species in most of its natural ranges. Data on its dendrometry, which is a prerequisite for its sustainable management, are limited, especially in Ghana. This study, therefore, investigated the relationships between five dendrometry variables and developed models for predicting them. The prediction models were developed using diameter at breast height and crown diameter as independent variables. The study was carried out in the Guinea Savanna Ecological Zone, specifically the Tolon district of the Northern Region, Ghana. Ten randomly distributed trees were sampled, and data collected and analyzed using Pearson correlation and simple linear regression. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test for significant differences at a 95% confidence level. The means for stem diameter at breast height, total height, crown diameter, crown ratio and crown height for Parkia biglobosa were 1.91 ± 0.40 m, 23.23 ± 5.40 m, 19.94 ± 10.00 m, 0.08 ± 0.02 m and 14.44 ± 5.91, respectively. It was observed that stem diameter was positively correlated with all four other variables measured. The correlation between stem diameter at breast height and crown diameter was 0.69. The coefficient of determination between stem diameter at breast height and total height, crown diameter, crown ratio and crown height had R² values of 0.16, 0.48, 0.19 and 0.28, respectively. Crown diameter, as the second indicator variable, was also positively related to total height with a correlation coefficient of 0.97 and R² value of 0.09. The relationship between stem diameter at breast height and crown diameter was significant with an F-value of 0.03 at a 95% confidence level. The results will make significant contributions to the management of trees in the study area. However, the small sample size limits the generalizability of the results; further research involving a larger sample size is recommended to refine and validate the developed models.

A Comprehensive Study on a Sustainable Module of Poultry Farming for the Livelihood Promotion of Rural Farmers and Youth in District Katihar, India

Kushwah Sunita — 2025-07-08

The socioeconomic condition of rural, poor families, farm women, rural youth and landless labourers of India may change with the help of backyard poultry farming at the village level. For villagers and poor people of India, chicken is a good source of high-quality protein at the local level. Poultry meat and eggs are also a good source of income. Due to low production, income and high cost of rearing of poultry birds, there is a need for a proper marketing system, management techniques to meet the present demand of meat and egg production in the country. A study on the level of adoption and constraints of backyard poultry rearing practices was conducted in rural areas of Katihar district of Bihar. The data were collected on the basis of a questionnaire from 130 respondents on the basis of an interview schedule. Participatory Rural Appraisal is a method of survey, which is used to get the baseline (primary) database of the village or community for the better implementation of technology. It is revealed from study that before the project 32.19 percent farmers were aware about the improved health practices while majority 67.80 percent of the respondents were unaware about the improved management practices like brooding, cleaning and use of disinfectant for unit, feeding ready made feeds, post-mortem of dead birds by vet doctors, segregation of diseased birds, provide mineral mixture, timely treatment of sick birds and consulting vet doctors. The result showed that the majority of the respondents in district Katihar were female, and adoption of poultry farming was high among rural women. The participation of rural women is higher than that of men. Farmers who had primary level education indicated high level of adoption towards poultry farming rather than illiterate and higher education. After training, farmers knew about poultry health improvement techniques and most of the respondents practiced these poultry rearing management methods. It is obtained from the data that a highly significant and positive response was recorded for Timely treatment of sick birds, segregation of diseased birds and consulting vet doctors. The present study concluded that the major constraints in poultry were low egg price in summer, high cost of inputs, difficulty in finance and high death rate of birds. It indicates government should design a module to provide soft loans, training facilities and proper marketing facilities to the backyard poultry farmers for their betterment.

Determinants of Agriculture as a Career Path among College Students in Mezam Division of Northwest Cameroon

Aseh Emmanuel Vitung — 2025-07-08

In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), agriculture continues to play a fundamental role in the economic portfolio of rural households. However, rapid urban growth—particularly in Africa—is increasingly fueled by two key factors: internal migration from rural to urban areas, and immigration from other countries and regions. Generally, youths in rural Africa have little aspiration for careers in the agricultural sector and instead migrate to urban areas to seek employment and better living conditions. In Cameroon, the majority of migrants are youths aged 18 to 35, who often face significant challenges related to unemployment and underemployment upon arriving in urban areas. The government is turning to agriculture as a source of employment for youth; however, there is scant literature on the determinants of the attraction of youths, especially college students, to the sector. This exploratory study sought to identify these determinants and to investigate strategies for making agriculture appealing to students for future career development. A cross-sectional study was conducted from March to June 2023 across selected secondary and high schools. In both secondary and high schools, a semi-structured questionnaire comprising twelve open-ended and three closed-ended questions was first piloted. Based on the pilot, an average of eight students per institution were selected for individual interviews, and eight others participated in focus group discussions. Secondary and high school teachers, selected using the convenience sampling approach, were engaged in focus group discussions. Thematic analysis was conducted using NVivo software. The overarching factors attracting college students to agriculture in the study area include the availability of arable land and easy access to it, access to start-up financing, the introduction of adapted mechanization and relevant information and communication technologies, increased productivity leading to higher returns on investment in agriculture, education and training, and positive messaging about agriculture targeting youth. The study recommends profound land tenure reforms, the provision of adapted financial services, the establishment of farm mechanization pools, the inclusion of agriculture in college curricula, and positive communication strategies to rebrand agriculture. Further research should be carried out in other regions of the country to confirm the findings of this study or to identify other contributory factors of youth attraction to agriculture, which may be specific to the different agro-ecological zones of the country.

Contribution of Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) on Farmers Livelihood in Ramanathapuram District of Tamilnadu, India

A. Malaisamy — 2025-07-08

Despite agriculture being a cornerstone of India's economy, farmers often face low income, poor market linkage and limited access to modern technologies, where agriculture plays a critical role, farmers also struggle with unstable prices and inadequate infrastructure. Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs) are designed to organize marginal and smallholder farmers into collective groups to improve their livelihoods. The study assesses the role of three Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs) in enhancing rural livelihood in Ramanathapuram district, Tamil Nadu. One hundred and twenty farmers, including 60 FPO members and 60 non-members, were surveyed to compare socio-economic characteristics and livelihood impact. The study mainly focuses on the marginal farmer having more members under the FPO. The main objective of the study is to find out the different constraint and their impact. It also aims to support the development of market facilities for agricultural produce, enabling farmers to align their production with the market demand of Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) and improve their access to resources for income generation. The main motive behind this is to generate the resources to satisfy their daily needs. Moreover, the study also examines the economic and operational impact of such FPOs on the farmers' livelihood. It uses the Heckman model to correct the selection bias present in the data. The Garrett ranking method is used to identify significant constraints faced by FPOs and suggests possible solutions. FPCs of Ramanathapuram district are looking to avail themselves of the following sources of grants and loans. In total, 3 FPCs received a total funding of ₹524.00 lakhs, wherein Parambai FPC received ₹205.00 lakhs, Ramnad Mundu Chilli FPO received ₹169.00 lakhs, and Thiruvadanai Nerkkanjiyam FPC received ₹150.00 lakhs. In terms of factors, age, credit through KCC and implements and machinery were significant at the 5 % level. Farm size was positively associated with income (β = 0.039, p = 0.000), indicating that larger farms generated higher incomes. Furthermore, the biggest marketing hurdle, lack of access to current market trends (72.6 %), prevents farmers from making informed decisions on pricing and sales. The study concluded that maximising the impact of FPOs on farmer livelihoods would be critical by strengthening institutional backing, increasing participation among farmers and enhancing financial linkages. Future studies could explore the long-term impacts of FPO membership through longitudinal data collection to capture dynamic socio-economic changes over time.

Effect of Dietary Inclusion Levels of Tigernut (Cyperus esculentus Lativum) on the Growth Performance of African Catfish, Clarias gariepinus Fingerlings

Opeh, Patience Bassey — 2025-07-08

Tigernuts are tubers of a stem, which have been recognised for their health benefits. They are high in fibre, proteins, and natural sugars. Clarias gariepinus, the African catfish, is an omnivorous freshwater fish which is a popular delicacy in Nigeria. It is a prominent culture species because of its fast growth rate and resistance to diseases and stress factors like over-stocking and poor water quality. The main objective of this study is to evaluate the Effect of dietary inclusion levels of Tigernut (Cyperus esculentus L.) on the Growth Performance of Clarias gariepinus Fingerlings. The growth performance of the African catfish, Clarias gariepinus, fed with different inclusion levels of processed tiger nut was studied for 168 days (24 weeks). A total of 144 catfish fingerlings with 0.66±0.12 g mean weight and 3.45±0.24 cm mean total length were collected from the University of Calabar Fish Farm, Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria. Eighteen (18) rectangular plastic tanks were used for this study. Tigernut seeds (Cyperus esculentus) were purchased in Bogobiri, Calabar, Cross River State. The tiger nut seeds were sundried for fourteen (14) days prior to milling to produce tigernut meal. The drying process was done to reduce excess moisture so as to prevent unpleasant smell, stale taste and growth of fungus, as well as to minimise the presence of cyanogenic glycosides. The dried nuts were ground into fine powder and analysed for proximate composition in the Department of Biochemistry, University of Calabar. A Complete Randomised Block Design (CRBD) consisting of 18 treatments was adopted for the study. Triplicate culture tanks in treated (L25-L100) and control groups (L0 and Ac) were stocked with eight fingerlings per square meter, respectively. Weight gain, specific growth rate (SGR), feed efficiency (FE) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) of catfish in different treatments were estimated. Five isonitrogenous diets were formulated to contain 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% tiger nuts to replace an equal weight of fish meal. Commercial fish feed (Coppens) was used as a control feed. All the diets were fed to the catfish fingerlings in triplicate for 24 weeks. The results revealed that the optimum requirement of tiger nut level in the formulation of practical diets for improved growth of C. gariepinus was 25% having the highest mean weight gain (42.3±0.68) and feed efficiency (23.50±0.18). Therefore, it is concluded that tigernut is a good plant-based ingredient for aquaculture feed, and tigernut meal could be incorporated in the C. gariepinus diet at a 25% level without any negative effect on growth.

Climate Change and Small-Scale Farming: Exploring the Connection between Awareness, Adaptation, and Food Security in the Eastern Cape Province

Lungile S. Gidi — 2025-07-08

The agriculture sector plays a crucial role in many African economies, employing around 65–70% of the workforce, supporting 90% of household livelihoods, and accounting for about a quarter of the continent’s gross domestic product. Climate change poses a significant threat to global agriculture, particularly for small-scale farmers who often lack the resources and knowledge to adapt. Ineffective adaptation strategies could exacerbate poverty and food insecurity. This chapter investigated the relationship between climate change awareness, adaptation strategies, and food security among small-scale farmers in the Eastern Cape Province. It aimed to understand the influence of farmers’ climate change awareness on their adaptation decisions and the subsequent effects on agricultural productivity and food security. The study employed a quantitative approach, using multi-stage sampling to survey 200 small-scale farmers through semi-structured questionnaires. Logit regression and endogeneity switching regression models were applied for data analysis. The study results show that small-scale farmers in the Eastern Cape are well aware of climate change and its impacts, particularly reduced farm returns (38%) and yields (36%), which threaten both agricultural productivity and food security. In response, farmers have adopted various strategies, such as crop rotation, improved crop varieties, adjusted planting dates, and mulching or fertilizer application. For the study site factors such as age, access to climate information, education, proximity to markets, drought frequency, perceptions of temperature and rainfall changes, radio ownership, farm income, farm size, household size and availability of extension services significantly influence adaptation choices. The results indicate that these adaptation strategies have contributed to improved agricultural yields and farm returns, thereby enhancing food security in the area. The chapter concludes with recommendations for governments, agencies and policymakers to support small-scale farmers through targeted policy interventions, strengthen extension services, and develop educational programs aimed at increasing adaptive capacity and building resilience among small-scale farmers.