An Overview of Disease and Health Research Vol. 11

Inflammatory Biomarkers and Renal Function Alterations in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Focus on Tumour Necrosis Factor-α

2026-04-18T11:09:11+00:00

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder commonly associated with systemic inflammation and progressive renal impairment. Growing evidence indicates that inflammatory cytokines play a critical role in the development of diabetic kidney complications. This book chapter aimed to evaluate the relationship between inflammatory biomarkers, particularly tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and renal function parameters in patients with T2DM. A total of 70 individuals aged 40–60 years were enrolled, including 40 patients with T2DM and 30 healthy controls. Serum levels of glucose, ferritin, TNF-α, C-reactive protein (CRP), urea, creatinine, and uric acid were assessed using standard biochemical assays and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay techniques. The results demonstrated significantly higher levels of inflammatory markers and renal function indicators in patients with T2DM compared with healthy controls (p < 0.05). These findings support the role of chronic inflammation, mediated by TNF-α, in renal dysfunction associated with T2DM and highlight the importance of early monitoring of inflammatory and renal biomarkers to reduce the risk of diabetic nephropathy.

Unravelling the Enigma of Kawasaki Disease: Navigating Diagnostic Uncertainty

2026-04-18T11:14:22+00:00

Kawasaki disease is still a rare pediatric disease with a multifactorial origin and genetics. There is an overall global burden of the disease, especially in the pediatric population in Asian countries. The disease is named after a Japanese paediatrician, Tomisaku Kawasaki. Research efforts are extensive and focus on finding the cause and molecular origin of Kawasaki disease. This chapter aims to elucidate the molecular and immunological basis of a rare paediatric disease with, to date, an unknown aetiology. Kawasaki disease initially presents with characteristic clinical symptoms, followed by the development of coronary artery lesions in a small percentage of cases. Some patients develop coronary artery lesions, whereas others do not. Both mild and severe forms of the disease are observed. Current research focuses on identifying biomarkers to predict the early development of coronary artery lesions in children with Kawasaki disease. Kawasaki-like features of the disease have been described, such as multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) or Kawasaki-like syndrome, which do not clearly exhibit the classical clinical presentation of Kawasaki disease. In such cases, Kawasaki disease may not fully conform to its typical definition. A clear classification and a clear diagnosis of each patient are of utmost importance.

Contemporary Approaches to the Diagnosis, Drug Resistance Detection and Treatment of Tuberculosis

2026-04-18T11:17:40+00:00

Tuberculosis (TB), caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, remains the leading cause of mortality from a single infectious agent worldwide, surpassing even human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), despite the availability of effective therapies that have been in use since the 1940s. TB disease is usually treated with antibiotics and can be fatal without treatment, occurring when the bacteria multiply in the body and affect various organs. Although truly transformative advances in tuberculosis (TB) diagnosis and treatment have yet to be realised, recent progress has emerged, driven by recognition of the economic potential of the market for novel diagnostic tools and therapeutics, alongside substantial increases in both public and private funding. Regardless of the colossal worldwide burden of TB and the general low rates of case discovery around the world, ordinary ways to deal with analysis have, as of not long ago, depended on tests that have significant impediments. In this review of advances in diagnosis and treatment, the study focused around qualities and constraints of more up to date tests that are accessible for the conclusion of dormant and dynamic tuberculosis and fast recognition of medication opposition, explicitly, tests that measure discharge of IFN-in light of incitement by Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens, nucleic corrosive enhancement for recognizable proof of M. tuberculosis complex, and quick tests for identifying drug obstruction. Standard regimens for treating TB have not changed for in excess of 30 years. What's more, it actually requires at least 6 months to have a high probability of enduring fix. This chapter highlights significant changes in the theory of treatment, underlining the duty of the supplier to guarantee effective fulfilment of treatment, and on the functions of existing cause of TB specialists and more up-to-date medications, for example, hifalutin, rifapentine, and fluoroquinolones. Future research in tuberculosis (TB) should prioritise the development of shorter, more effective treatment regimens, particularly for drug-resistant strains, to improve patient adherence and outcomes.

A Single Experience of a Well-Differentiated Pediatric Neuroendocrine Tumor in the Appendix

2026-04-18T11:21:54+00:00

Pediatric neuroendocrine tumours (NETs) of the gastrointestinal tract are uncommon, with appendiceal NETs usually being found incidentally. They are most often found in the lungs and the gastrointestinal tract. Neuroendocrine tumours are a diverse group of neoplasms that share common features such as a similar histological appearance, special secretory granules, and the production of biogenic amines and polypeptide hormones. Limited research has been conducted in pediatric patients, and guidelines are primarily derived from adult data. Diagnostic tests specific to NETs are currently lacking. Treatment options include Somatostatin analogues, surgical interventions like hemicolectomy and chemotherapy. This study reports a case of a 16-year-old boy in which, incidentally, a highly differentiated neuroendocrine tumour (NET, G1) was found during laparoscopic appendectomy. This report describes a 16-year-old boy with an incidental, highly differentiated appendiceal NET (G1) measuring 0.25 cm, discovered during a laparoscopic appendectomy for florid ulcerative-phlegmonous appendicitis. The patient presented with atypical signs of appendicitis, including mild pain in the McBurney region. Laparoscopic appendectomy was performed to address the symptomatic presentation. Histopathological and macroscopic examination confirmed acute appendicitis and revealed an incidental highly differentiated NET (G1) of the appendix. Laboratory parameters at admission showed leukocytosis of 17.4 Th/cu., and the CRP level was 119 mg/l. Tumour-free surgical margins and subserosa/mesoappendix were confirmed, with TNM classification reported as pT1, pNx, pMx, G1, local R0. Preoperative intravenous antibiotic therapy with Unacid was administered. Pediatric appendiceal NETs are generally discovered incidentally, are localised, and exhibit low-grade histology. Tumours under 1 cm rarely metastasize, while features such as serosal or perineural invasion and G2 status may increase metastatic risk. These findings support careful surgical management and follow-up in pediatric patients.

Breast Cancer Epidemiology, Risk Factors, Pathogenesis and Advances in Diagnosis and Treatment: A Review

2026-04-22T08:29:11+00:00

Breast carcinoma is one of the most common and life-threatening types of cancer that threatens the lives of millions of people around the world. It is characterised by the abnormal growth of cells in the breast tissue, most commonly in the ducts and lobules. Australia/New Zealand, Western Europe and Northern America had the highest incidence rates (per 100,000) of 95.5, 90.7 and 89.4, respectively, while South-Central Asia, Middle and Eastern Africa, as well as Central America showed the lowest incidence rates for this region (26.2, 33 and 39.5, respectively). The highest breast cancer death rates were in Melanesia (37.50), Polynesia and Western Africa (22.30) and the Caribbean (18.90); the lowest rates occurred in Eastern Asia (9.80), Central America (10.40) and Australia/New Zealand (12.10), recorded in the year 2020. In the Indian population, it has become the leading cause of death, replacing cervical cancer, and accounts for nearly 25-32% of the total number of female cancers, with a higher incidence in the urban population due to changes in lifestyle, detection, and awareness. Several biological and environmental factors lead to the occurrence of breast carcinoma, and these include hormonal, genetic, lifestyle, and reproductive factors. For instance, the role of hormones, such as oestrogen and progesterone, is critical in the development and progression of most types of breast carcinoma, particularly those that are hormone receptor-positive. In addition, the use of hormone replacement therapy or hormonal contraceptives may slightly increase the risk in some individuals. Early detection of diseases using screening techniques such as mammography, ultrasonography, and self-examination is vital for improving survival rates. Modern developments in molecular biology and targeted therapy have greatly improved the diagnostic and therapeutic modalities for the diseases. Modern therapeutic modalities for the diseases include surgery, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy, tailored according to the molecular characteristics of the tumour. Overall, increasing awareness, providing access to screening, and using innovative therapeutic modalities are essential for reducing the burden of breast carcinoma and improving survival rates and quality of life for affected individuals worldwide.

From Health to Major Depressive Disorder: A Review

2026-04-22T08:36:13+00:00

Major Depressive Disorder has become a significant public health issue that deeply impacts an individual's life. Depression is a multifactorial psychiatric disease and the leading cause of distress, disability, and suicide. Reduced quality of life is evident owing to a disease and its comorbidities, as well as social factors. However, several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the pathogenesis of MDD. This narrative review discusses the multifactorial origin of major depressive disorder resulting from interactions among genetic, environmental, psychological, and biological factors.

Research in these areas continues and increasingly connects to neuroinflammatory processes that impact brain cells and structures. The current understanding of MDD's pathophysiology highlights the impact of cytokines in mood regulation, as well as the limbic system structures, including the amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex, all of which are affected. The review further offers insights into the hyperactivation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, monoamine theories of depression, the kynurenine pathway, hormonal dysregulations, neuroplasticity, environmental stressors, and other factors. Systemic stress, whether acute or chronic, and the involvement of the immune response underpin cognitive and emotional processes in patients with depression.

Neurotransmitter imbalances are currently a key focus of pharmacotherapy, and antidepressant medications influence the activity of common neurotransmitters. The review further informs the identification of new targets for pharmacotherapy and other therapies in patients with neuroinflammation who cannot respond to current treatments.

Sarcopenia, a Silent Muscle Epidemic of Ageing: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management

2026-04-22T09:20:42+00:00

Sarcopenia is a progressive disease that affects the skeletal muscles. It is characterised by the loss of muscle strength, muscle mass, and function. This condition is becoming increasingly recognised as a major factor in poor health outcomes for older adults. As the global population ages quickly, sarcopenia has become a significant clinical and public health challenge. Recognised through standardised criteria and ICD-10 coding, it is an increasing public health challenge. This chapter comprehensively reviews the current concepts of sarcopenia, including definitions, epidemiology, pathophysiology, risk factors, clinical consequences, diagnostic strategies, and evidence-based approaches to management and prevention. The current narrative review aims to integrate the latest literature and consensus statements from around the world, such as the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People (EWGSOP2) and the Asian Working Group for Sarcopenia (AWGS). The main areas of focus were muscle strength, muscle mass and quality, physical function, and the complex relationships between these parameters and the processes of ageing, chronic illness, inflammation, and lifestyle. Sarcopenia arises from anabolic resistance, neuromuscular junction and muscle degeneration, hormonal changes, chronic low-grade inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and physical inactivity. In addition to the loss of muscle mass, the loss of muscle quality, especially myosteatosis, has been recognised as an important component of sarcopenia and its impact on function. Sarcopenia is often comorbid with chronic diseases and can be identified as sarcopenic obesity, which is known to have a particularly adverse prognosis. The use of SARC-F (Strength, Assistance with walking, Rising from a chair, Climbing stairs, Falls) as a screening test helps in its early recognition, while its diagnosis is confirmed by an objective evaluation of muscle strength, mass, and function. Progressive resistance exercise training has been the mainstay in its management, and its efficacy has been well established. Proper protein intake and comprehensive supportive care can improve its outcome.

Sarcopenia is a common, underdiagnosed, and potentially reversible condition with profound implications for healthy ageing. Early detection and integrated interventions combining exercise and nutrition are essential to preserve functional independence, reduce healthcare burden, and improve quality of life in ageing populations.

Advances in the Treatment of Pediatric Sickle Cell Disease

2026-04-22T09:31:37+00:00

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a hereditary haematological disorder associated with significant morbidity and mortality, characterised by a wide spectrum of clinical complications that vary across age groups. The disease predominantly affects individuals from sub-Saharan Africa and their descendants, but it is also prevalent in parts of the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and India, with global distribution influenced by migration patterns. SCD encompasses a group of disorders caused by the presence of haemoglobin S. The HbS component of total haemoglobin in SCD is normally over 50%. HbS is based on an amino acid substitution at position 6 of the β-globin chain, where glutamic acid is replaced by valine. This substitution replaces a hydrophilic amino acid with a hydrophobic amino acid, explaining the reduced water solubility and altered molecular organisation of HbS compared to normal haemoglobin. Diseases caused by HbS include homozygous SCD, where both alleles are affected by the sickle cell mutation (SCD-S/S), HbSC disease, where one allele is affected by the sickle cell mutation and the other by the HbC mutation (SCD-S/C), and sickle cell β-thalassemia with mixed heterozygosity for the sickle cell mutation and a β-thalassemia mutation (SCD-S/β-thalassemia). In SCD-S/β-thalassemia, forms are distinguished where the β-thalassemia mutation completely inactivates the affected gene (SCD-S/β0-thalassemia) and forms where the allele with the thalassemia mutation still has residual activity (SCD-S/β+-thalassemia). Rarely, the sickle cell mutation can also be combined with other haemoglobin variants (SCD-S/D, SCD-S/OArab, SCD-S/Lepore). Carriers have a normal life expectancy. However, there are individual reports of complications in heterozygous carriers of the sickle cell mutation under common circumstances such as pregnancy, mountain sports, intense physical activity, or air travel. It is also unclear whether the carrier status is associated with an increased rate of kidney complications. Nevertheless, it is not appropriate to indicate specific medical care needs based on these individual case reports, given the frequency of carrier status. However, the familial risk of developing SCD should be considered in adult carriers. This review aims to summarise and critically evaluate recent advances in the treatment of sickle cell disease in children, with a particular focus on novel pharmacological agents, gene-based therapies, and targets for increasing fetal haemoglobin levels. Recent developments in treatment include agents such as voxelotor, hydroxyurea, and crizanlizumab, as well as innovative approaches like CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing and HbF induction therapies. These strategies offer promising improvements in disease management and patient outcomes. The overall clinical burden of SCD remains substantial, underscoring the importance of continued research to improve therapeutic strategies and patient outcomes.